Fig. 1

Number of university codes of research conduct that (1) defined research integrity, quality and misconduct; outcomes in this section were scored as No: not mentioned, Default: the code defaults to the Australian Code, Specific: the code states its own definition, (2) required ethics approval; outcomes in this section were scored as No and Yes, (3) endorsed responsible research practices and (4) discouraged research misbehaviours and questionable research practices; outcomes in sections (3) and (4) were scored as No: not mentioned, Default: the code defaults to the Australian Code, Advised: implies strongly recommended but not mandated (a weak endorsement), Required: implies mandatory, likely with penalties if violated (a strong endorsement). Refer to Table 1 for wording of questions and variable names in this figure